Object: Cartonnage Fragment

C/1956/8/1
Fragment of a mummy cartonnage
Egyptian
18th dynasty (1570-1314 BCE)
Materials: linen or papyrus

This object is a multi-colored fragment of a mummy cartonnage possibly from the 18th Dynasty. Cartonnage was used for personal funerary ornaments such as mummy masks. The masks would cover the head, shoulders, and upper chest of the mummy to protect the face of the deceased. This particular piece was likely from the chest portion of a cartonnage mummy mask.

Cartonnage was made from thin, layered pieces of linen or papyrus. Once a shape had begun to form one side was coated with gesso (a mixture of glue and whiting plaster) to harden the shape. This coating allowed the maker to use detailed paint or gold leafing on the front side.

Each individual had their own design for their mask. Usually, the design would indicate something about the deceased. For instance, the mask may have been a representation of what the person looked like or enjoyed doing. An example of a gilded mummy mask can be seen at the British Museum.

[Brittany Teel]

Object: Amulet

C/1987/7/16
Amulet
Egypt
Date unknown
Materials: faience

The museum’s catalog identifies this amulet as depicting the Egyptian god Anubis. In Egyptian mythology Anubis plays a crucial role as guide and protector of the deceased.

However, after examining the piece I feel that this amulet does not depict Anubis. Anubis, when shown in his half human form, has the head of a jackal while this amulet shows the head of a lion. Additionally, this figure is shown wearing a special type of crown called the atef crown. This type of crown is typically associated with the god Osiris and symbolized the priesthood and divine power. The atef crown resembles the white crown of Upper Egypt which has been decorated with two vertical rows of ostrich feathers. It seems more likely that this amulet depicts the god Maahes, rather than Anubis.

Maahes (also known as Mahes, Mihos, Miysis, or Mysis) was a male deity most commonly associated with fighting, war, and violence. Some myths describe him as a protector or guardian of Ra, the god of the sun disk. In this role he would protect Ra from Apep, the god of darkness while he traveled through the underworld during the night. In times of war, Maahes was also thought to be the protector of the pharaoh. Other myths describe him as an executioner, a protector of the innocent, a guardian of sacred places, or as one who could find “truth.” He also shared many characteristics with other lion headed deities such as Nefertem and Shesmu. It is likely that an amulet of Maahes was thought to protect the wearer from evil and ensure their safe passage in the underworld.

An example of a faience amulet depicting the god Anubis can be found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. [Kate Barr]

Object: Amulet

C/1987/7/17
Amulet
Egypt
Date unknown
Materials: faience

Amulets were used by ancient Egyptians as good luck charms and offered protection from evil forces. Amulets could be worn as jewelry or carried by the living. Amulets were also often inserted in the wrappings of mummies to protect the deceased. During the 19th century this practice of inserting amulets within the wrappings helped to encourage the seemingly bizarre practice of “mummy unwrapping parties.” Mummies were collected by travelers and shipped back to Europe and the Americas where the new “owner” would host an event featuring the unwrapping and destruction of the mummy. During the course of the event many of these amulets could be discovered and kept as souvenirs. Many mummies were destroyed in this way.

This amulet is made of green Egyptian faience. While faience can be produced in different colors, many pieces of Egyptian faience are blue, a very powerful color to ancient Egyptians. The color blue symbolized the Nile, which was a source life and rebirth. Blue faience also provided a more reasonably priced alternative to the semi-precious stone, lapis lazuli.

The museum’s catalog identifies this amulet as depicting a lotus blossom, however, upon examination of the piece I believe this to be incorrect. Instead, I believe this is a “heart amulet.” Ancient Egyptians believed that the heart, rather than the brain, was the source of human intelligence, emotion, and the conscience. When mummifying a body all of the other internal organs were removed from the body and stored in special jars in the tomb. Even the brain, which today is seen as the source of human thought, was removed from the body through the nose. However, the heart was kept in the body so that the deceased would have it at judgment in the afterlife. Heart amulets were placed within the mummy’s wrappings near the chest of the deceased so that if his/her real heart was damaged or destroyed the amulet could take its place.

Other examples of heart amulets can be found in the Egyptian Museum of Cairo, and the Governorate of Alexandria. [Kate Barr]

Object: Inscribed Papyrus Fragment

C/44-5/5/1
Fragment of inscribed papyrus
Egypt
Ca. 100 BCE
Material: papyrus and ink

Papyrus is an early form of paper, highly valued in the ancient world and most commonly produced in Egypt’s Nile Delta. The paper is made from the inner material of the stem of the papyrus plant (Cyperus papyrus). This inner material, called pith, is removed from the stem and layered on top of itself with the grain of each layer running at right angles to the layer underneath. Once the layers of papyrus reach the desired thickness they are very tightly compressed and allowed to dry.

The inscription on this piece was recently examined by Dr. Janet H. Johnson, a professor of Egyptology at the Oriental Institute, who concluded that it is written in Demotic. Demotic is a type of ancient Egyptian writing that was derived from northern forms of Hieratic, which is often considered the “cursive” or “short-hand” form of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. This type of writing was used during the later part of the Dynastic period in ancient Egypt and continued to be used into the Roman Period. The most famous use of Demotic can be found on the Rosetta Stone.

Dr. Janet H. Johnson was able to provide some information as to the content of this inscription. She reports that: “It seems to be a letter dated year 11, first month of summer (no king’s name was included). The name of the sender is lost in the break at the upper right; the name of the recipient seems to be a foreign name. It mentions the town/location of Meidum, in the Fayum…It also seems to mention ‘matters of Pharaoh,’ which probably would be a reference to state business.”

For more information on ancient paper making see:
Johnson, Malcom. The Nature and Making of Papyrus. Barkston Ash: Elemete Press, 1973. [Kate Barr]

Object: Ushabti

C/53-4/58/1
Faience ushabti
Egypt
XXVI Dynasty (ca. 664-525 BCE)
Materials: faience

Ushabtis, also known as shabtis or shwabtis, are small figurines usually modeled out of Egyptian faience. These figurines are associated with burials and always show a human figure wrapped as a mummy with the traditional false beard and headdress of the pharaoh and the god Osirus. The arms of the figure are crossed and when the burial in question was royal, they would carry the crook and flail signifying kingship or divinity. Ushabtis were intended to function like servants for the deceased in the afterlife. Ancient Egyptians believed that after death the soul of the individual continued to live a similar existence to that on the physical earth. In order to assure that one could have a pleasant and relaxed afterlife, free from labor and discomfort, it was necessary to bring along servants in the form of ushabtis. The ushabtis were all inscribed with a verse from Chapter 6 of the Book of the Dead which asks the ushabti to take the place of the deceased whenever he is called upon to perform any task in the afterlife.

The ushabti in the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History is made of green Egyptian faience. Faience is a type of fired ceramic with a tin glaze, that was common in the Middle East and Europe. Unlike traditional faience, Egyptian faience is made by heating a mixture of sand and minerals. This mixture, when heated would essentially melt together into a solid stone-like material with a glassy finish. By combining different types and quantities of minerals different colors could be created.

A preliminary examination of the inscription on this ushabti indicates that this figurine belonged to a person named Ptah-ir-dy-es, and the museum’s records indicate that the figure dates from the XXVI Dynasty. The XXVI Dynasty, often called the Saite Dynasty, once again united both Upper and Lower Egypt under one king following the Third Intermediate Period. It begins just after the Assyrian invasion of Egypt and is brought to an end by the Persian invasion. This dynasty represents the end of native rule in ancient Egypt, as the power of kingship passed to their southern Kushite neighbors.

For more information on Egyptian funerary customs and grave materials see:

El-Shahawy, Abeer. The Funerary Art of Ancient Egypt: A Bridge to the Realm of the Hereafter. Cairo: Farid Atiya Press, 2005.

Smith, William S., and William K. Simpson. The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998.

For more information on the XXVI Dynasty see:

Welsby, D.A. The Kingdom of Kush: The Napatan and Meroitic Empires. London: British Museum Press, 1996. [Kate Barr]