Object: Shirt

E/1995/1/24
Shirt or Huipil
Chuj Maya
Guatemala
ca. 1945
Materials: Cotton

This shirt, or huipil, from the Sam Noble Museum collection was made by an unknown member of the Chuj Maya community of Guatemala. Chuj is a language belonging to Q’anjobalan-Chujean family of Mayan languages. There are five branches in the Mayan language family, namely, Cholan-Tzeltalan, Huastecan, Q’anjobalan-Chujean, Quichean-Mamean, and Yucatecan. The Chuj language is spoken by many people in Guatemala and Mexico today. In Guatemala, most Chuj live in the department of Huehuetenango. Huehuetenango is one of Guatemala’s largest departments and is located along the Sierra de Los Cuchamatanes mountain range. This shirt is believed to have come from San Mateo Ixtatá, one of the two main Chuj communities in the region.

The huipil is a traditional Mayan garment, usually made of one or two pieces of hand woven cloth that is heavily decorated with embroidery around the neck. The designs used on huipiles are usually specific to the maker’s community and combine elements of Precolumbian and European styles. The influence of modern western-style clothing on traditional Mayan garments can be seen in this huipil’s fabric. Rather than being woven on a traditional backstrap or treadle loom, the fabric for this shirt is commercially produced muslin.

The following video shows a woman using a traditional backstrap loom.

[Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Dresden Codex Copy

E/1985/2/1
Copy of Dresden Codex
Jorge Enrique Bonilla Mendez (this copy)
Maya (original)
Yucatan, Mexico (original)
ca. 11th -13th century (original) / ca. 1960s (this copy)
Materials: Wood, paper, & ink

This object is a handmade copy of the Dresden Codex, made by Guatemalan artist Jorge Enrique Bonilla Mendez in the 1960′s. The original Dresden Codex is one of the oldest known books written in the Americas and may have been a copy of an even earlier text dating back to 700-900 CE. Considered to be the most complete of the Mayan codices still in existence, it contains ancient Mayan almanacs, astronomical observations, astrological tables, ritual schedules, and calendars. The 74 page book know referred to as the Dresden Codex is named for the European city in which it was kept from the 1700′s onward. Little is known about how the so-called Dresden Codex made it to Europe, but it may have been one of a group of ancient texts collected by Hernán (or Hernando) Cortés in the early 1500′s. The first known record of its existence came in 1739 when it was purchased (in three pieces) from an unknown private collector by Johann Christian Götze, the Director of the Royal Library at Dresden. Next, in 1810 Alexander von Humboldt published a portion of the text (the first modern reproduction) in his Vues des cordilleres et monuments des peuples indigenous de l’Amerique. In 1829 Constantine Rafinesque-Schmaltz was the first to identify it as a Mayan codex, and in 1880 Ernst Forstemann was able to correctly reassemble the three sections of text. Translation and interpretation of the text has continued to this day, including a much hyped end of the world prediction loosely (and most would say incorrectly) based on Mayan calendars like those found in the Dresden Codex.

The following video excerpt describes the ongoing process of translating ancient Mayan texts. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Drum incense burner

E/2000/13/1
Drum incense burner
Lacandone
Mexico: Chiapas
ca. 1970
Materials: ceramic, leather, plant fibers, wood

The Lacandone (or Lacandon) people of the Chiapas region of Mexico are one of the remaining tribes of Maya Indians, and are considered by some, to be the most traditional Mayan group remaining. This group of Maya live exclusively in the Laconadon rain forest of southern Mexico. In 1978 the Mexican government declared approximately 600,000 hectares of Lacandon forest a “protected zone,” and gave the land to the Lacandone people. Roughly half of this protected area is known as Montes Azules (Blue Woodlands) and is one of the largest remaining tropical rainforests in Central America. Traditionally the Lacandone engaged in a sustainable slash-and-burn form of agriculture that would utilize small areas of the forest for subsistence crops and then allow the field to remain fallow for a number of years before being returned to use. The Lacandone would supplement their diet with hunting, fishing, and gathering.

Incense plays a large part in traditional Lacandone religion, and this drum shaped incense burner was likely meant to be used as part of a Lacandone ceremony. The Lacandone worship a number of deities, many of which have their roots in ancient Maya tradition. Religious ceremonies can take place at a number of sacred sites, including natural caves, Mayan ruins, and in small house-like structures within the villages called “god houses.” These ceremonies traditionally included offerings of food and/or drink to the deities and the burning of copal incense. The incense, made of tree resins, is burned in special pottery vessels called “god pots.” These incense burners are shaped like a simple round bowl with a large human-like face modeled on the rim. While the faces of these pots are all very similar, the pots are often painted with specific colors and patterns to indicate that the pot is a representation of a specific deity.

Other examples of Lacandone pottery can be found at Williams College Museum of Art, the National Museum of the American Indian, the Milwaukee Public Museum, and others.

The following video shows a Lacandone drum similar the one at the Sam Noble Museum being used. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Jar

E/1968/6/11
Jar
Raramuri (Tarahumara)
Mexico: Sierra Madre Occidental or Copper Canyon
Date unknown
Materials: Ceramic & slip

This water storage jar was made by the Raramuri (Tarahumara) people of northwestern Mexico. The name Raramuri means “foot-runner” or “he who walks well” and this tribal group is renowned for their long distance running and hiking abilities. The Raramuri came to live in the remote canyons and mountains of the Sierra Madre Occidental after encountering Spanish settlers in their previous homelands in the Chihuahua region of Mexico during the 16th-18th centuries. Their first contact with the Spaniards was with the Jesuit missionaries around 1607. In addition to religion, the missionaries also brought new agricultural techniques such as irrigation, the plow and the axe to the Raramuri. During the 17th century silver was discovered on Raramuri lands and much of their territory was confiscated and many of the Raramuri were captured to serve as forced laborers in the mines. This caused the tribe to move deeper into the mountainous areas of the Sierra Madre Occidental, where they made an effort to avoid further outside contact. The Raramuri are primarily farmers specialized in raising corn, goats, cattle, beans, potatoes, and apples but are also expert hunters. In modern times they have also begun selling their pottery, drums and baskets in the tourist trade.

The following video shows how the Raramuri live today.

© Arizona State Museum

Pottery has been used by the Raramuri for many years as everyday storage and cooking containers and is often used in their religious rituals as well. Pottery vessels are also particularly important to the Raramuri for the brewing of tesguino, a corn-based beer that is brewed in ceramic jars. Raramuri pottery historically was unpainted and decorated primarily with attached leather and rawhide. Today painted pottery is becoming more common as a part of the tourist trade. The “paint”, a type of thin mineral slip, is obtained from red ochre, iron oxide or hematite and applied by hand or using a feather or cloth-wrapped stick as a brush. The pottery is hand made by coiling a thin rope of clay on top of itself into the desired shape. The surface is then smoothed and the coils are fused together using a piece of gourd, stone or wood. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Chocolate whisk

E/1978/5/9
Chocolate whisk (Molinillo)
Tlacolulu, Oaxaca, Mexico
ca. 1978
Materials: Wood

This object is a chocolate whisk, sometimes called a molinillo. Whisks like this one are used to make chocolate foam, a Mexican specialty, used in many traditional drinks and recipes. Chocolate is made from cacao, a type of seed found in fruit produced by Theobroma Cacao trees, and is native to Mexico and Central America. Making chocolate from the cacao seeds is a long and involved process. The seeds must be fermented and then dried, roasted, shelled, ground, and pressed before it can be mixed with milk and sugar to form the candy we all know and love. However, prior to European contact, chocolate was traditionally served as a drink and was not sweetened like most modern chocolates. In fact it isn’t uncommon in traditional Mexican cuisine to find recipes that use chili’s along with chocolate. Chocolate whisks like this one were invented by the Spaniard colonists in Mexico around the 1700′s.  Prior to the invention of the molinillo, chocolate froth was made by pouring the drink back-and-forth from one cup to another.  The whisks are used in a single container with the handle extending out of the top. The handle is rotated by rubbing it rapidly between the user’s hands.

The following video shows how chocolate whisks are used.

[Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Amate paper charms

E/1980/3/6-12
Amate paper charms
Otomi
Central America: Mexico: Puebla
Unknown (likely 20th century)
Materials: Amate paper

Amate paper is a type of bark cloth that has been produced in Mexico for hundreds of years. While many tribal groups in Mexico have produced this type of paper, dating back to the Aztec Empire, today the Otomi people are best know for their amate paper production. The Otomi tribe lives primarily in the Mexican state of Puebla, though smaller communities can be found in Veracruz and Hidalgo. Today charms like these from the Sam Noble Museum‘s Ethnology Collection are frequently sold as tourist items however, the Otomi originally produced paper charms like these for a ritual purpose. There are traditionally two types of paper produced, one light in color and another dark. Cut out figures made from light colored paper are thought to be good spirits or blessings and figures made from dark paper are thought to be demons or curses. These figures were cut out by shamans of the tribe during a special ceremony. The figurines could then be used in rituals and presented as offerings to the spirits. The rituals were usually performed to cure and prevent disease or to ensure good harvests and healthy livestock.

Several different types of trees are used to produce amate paper. This type of paper can be made from various types of ficus and mulberry trees, known as Amate, Jonote, or Xalama Limon. The different types of bark produce different colored paper. The paper is made by harvesting thin strips of bark which are then boiled in water and lime for an extended period of time. After the bark has been boiled to the appropriate texture it is cooled and rinsed. The bark is then laid out in a grid pattern on a hard surface and the fibers are pounded together using stones. Finally the paper is allowed to dry and is then ready for use. A video of the process can be found below.

Other examples of traditional amate paper charms can be found at the University of Missouri’s Museum of Anthropology, the National Museum of the American Indian, the Museum of International Folk Art, and others. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Lance

E/1955/28/1-2
Bullfighting lances or Picas
Mexico
20th century
Materials: Wood, metal nail, paper

Bullfighting has been a favorite sport in Mexico for many years. Originally introduced to Mexico by the Spanish, Mexican matadores perform specific moves, occasionally using a piece of red cloth, to encourage the bull to charge them. As the bull charges, the matadore will try to avoid being trampled while simultaneously injuring the bull. The

Photo from http://www.heatheronhertravels.com

lances, or picas, from the Sam Noble Museum‘s Ethnology Collection were meant to be stuck into the neck of the bull as it charges. The metal tips of the lances are made from nails and are sharpened to form small hooks that are meant to catch in the bull’s flesh. These injuries, and the resulting blood loss, will slowly tire the bull and in the end, the bull is killed with a sword. The pica originated in Spanish bullfighting as the weapon used by the picadores, one of three sets of fighters that would engage the bull. Typically, a Mexican bullfighting event includes other activities or shows leading up to the the bullfight as the main event and can easily last all day.

Thousands of bullfighting events occur annually in Mexico, Spain, and other parts of Central America. Despite their popularity, recently there have been increased efforts to stop the sport, now seen by many to be cruel and inhumane. Bullfighting is now banned from National Spanish Television, and the Spanish region of Catalonia has banned the practice. There are also a number of groups attempting to pass bullfighting bans in Mexico, Ecuador, and other areas of Spain.

The following link will connect you to a National Geographic video with more information on the bullfighting tradition in Mexico. Viewer discretion is advised however as this video includes footage of actual bullfights.
http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/places/culture-places/sports/mexico_bullfighting.html [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Balero

E/1930/1/1
Latin America: possibly Peruvian
Date unknown
Materials: wood, string

This object is a balero toy from Latin America. Baleros are fashioned from a ball and a pin joined together by a string. Usually, the ball contains a small cylindrical opening that fits over the pin. Balero toys are similar to cup-and-ball games, in which players attempt to sling a ball into a cup by manipulating the movement of the ball from the string. Balero players maneuver the ball by holding the pin and swinging the ball into the air with the string while attempting to catch it on the tip of the pin.

Baleros are thought to have originated from bilboquets in France during the sixteenth century. Bilboquets are variants of the ball-and-pin toys and monarchs, such as King Henry III of France, popularized the game in the European royal courts. Eventually, the game spread to the Americas, though there is evidence similar games existed among indigenous groups for many years before interactions with Europeans. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, balero toys became fashionable among elite circles, and King Louis XV was reported to have owned several ivory ball-and-pin sets.

Today, baleros are common in tourist shops and toy stores around the world. Versions of balero toys from different countries can be seen here. The game has also been featured in music and art work, as in the work pictured to the left. However, for most children and adults, baleros remain a simple, yet enjoyable diversion.

[Lauren Simons]

Object: Loom

E/1997/3/7
Cakchiquel, Maya: Backstrap Loom
Guatemala
Date unknown
Materials: Wood, yam, cotton fibers

The Mayan tradition of weaving is one that reaches beyond textile production. Through the use of tools such as this backstrap loom, weaving can become a mechanism to strengthen and empower the female identity. From an early age, a Maya girl is taught the importance of her role as a weaver. This is instilled as soon as she enters the world, when female elders give her a toy loom. Within the first ten years of her life, this gift will be used as an educational tool as she becomes familiar with the look and feel of the loom. Once her spirit is ready, female family members will teach her how to weave.

In the Mayan worldview, weaving and female fertility are inextricably linked. The very act of weaving is referred to as “giving birth.” Various components of the loom and implements associated with weaving are given names related to female deities associated with life-giving powers, and human body parts such as the female heart, womb and umbilical cord. If the loom is used properly, the rhythmic sounds of the batten and shuttle will sound like a prenatal heartbeat, and the swaying body of a weaving woman should imitate the movements of a woman in labor.

Equipped with the skill and knowledge of textile production, women are often self-motivated to use weaving as a social movement, achieving solidarity among fellow female community members. Many women accomplish this by participating in a weaving cooperative. Membership in such an organization serves to galvanize the female gender identity, and provide a somewhat marginalized group with the means to boost morale and build economic stability and independence. By entering the marketplace, Mayan women have an opportunity to personally share their craft of weaving with people outside their culture group, using the loom as a communicative device regarding their heritage and traditional customs.

Through a shared identity found in cooperative efforts of conservation and education, there is a raised awareness of the rich cultural tradition of weaving. As a result, weaving’s deep connection with the feminine identity is shared with, and kept alive for, future generations of both the Mayan weavers and the public audience.

[Anna Rice]

Object: Ball

E/1968/2/6
Tarahumara: Ball
Central America
20th Century
Materials: wood

This wooden ball facilitates a game of endurance running for the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico. The wooden ball is used in a game called rarajipari or “foot throwing.” The ball is kicked in relays for up to days at a time, depending on whether it is an impromptu game or one planned well in advance. In games that are planned, bets are often taken by spectators. Referring to themselves as Raramuri, meaning “foot runner,” “running foot,” or “light foot,” their daily activities consist of long distance running and traveling in high altitudes and hot, rough terrain. There is somewhat of a cult following from the runners of ultra marathons, who admire the endurance and bare-footed or Huarache-wearing running style of the Raramuri.

Residing in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico, and mostly in harsh environments of heat and high altitude, many Raramuri are far from what many perceive as “modern” civilization. Many still live in cliffs, caves and stone houses. Their economic system is based on bartering and trade, rather than the national currency.

This YouTube video is a short documentary of the lives of the Raramuri. At the five minute mark, they address the kickball game and history of running in this culture.

[Stephanie Adams]