Object: Dresden Codex Copy

E/1985/2/1
Copy of Dresden Codex
Jorge Enrique Bonilla Mendez (this copy)
Maya (original)
Yucatan, Mexico (original)
ca. 11th -13th century (original) / ca. 1960s (this copy)
Materials: Wood, paper, & ink

This object is a handmade copy of the Dresden Codex, made by Guatemalan artist Jorge Enrique Bonilla Mendez in the 1960′s. The original Dresden Codex is one of the oldest known books written in the Americas and may have been a copy of an even earlier text dating back to 700-900 CE. Considered to be the most complete of the Mayan codices still in existence, it contains ancient Mayan almanacs, astronomical observations, astrological tables, ritual schedules, and calendars. The 74 page book know referred to as the Dresden Codex is named for the European city in which it was kept from the 1700′s onward. Little is known about how the so-called Dresden Codex made it to Europe, but it may have been one of a group of ancient texts collected by Hernán (or Hernando) Cortés in the early 1500′s. The first known record of its existence came in 1739 when it was purchased (in three pieces) from an unknown private collector by Johann Christian Götze, the Director of the Royal Library at Dresden. Next, in 1810 Alexander von Humboldt published a portion of the text (the first modern reproduction) in his Vues des cordilleres et monuments des peuples indigenous de l’Amerique. In 1829 Constantine Rafinesque-Schmaltz was the first to identify it as a Mayan codex, and in 1880 Ernst Forstemann was able to correctly reassemble the three sections of text. Translation and interpretation of the text has continued to this day, including a much hyped end of the world prediction loosely (and most would say incorrectly) based on Mayan calendars like those found in the Dresden Codex.

The following video excerpt describes the ongoing process of translating ancient Mayan texts. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Drum incense burner

E/2000/13/1
Drum incense burner
Lacandone
Mexico: Chiapas
ca. 1970
Materials: ceramic, leather, plant fibers, wood

The Lacandone (or Lacandon) people of the Chiapas region of Mexico are one of the remaining tribes of Maya Indians, and are considered by some, to be the most traditional Mayan group remaining. This group of Maya live exclusively in the Laconadon rain forest of southern Mexico. In 1978 the Mexican government declared approximately 600,000 hectares of Lacandon forest a “protected zone,” and gave the land to the Lacandone people. Roughly half of this protected area is known as Montes Azules (Blue Woodlands) and is one of the largest remaining tropical rainforests in Central America. Traditionally the Lacandone engaged in a sustainable slash-and-burn form of agriculture that would utilize small areas of the forest for subsistence crops and then allow the field to remain fallow for a number of years before being returned to use. The Lacandone would supplement their diet with hunting, fishing, and gathering.

Incense plays a large part in traditional Lacandone religion, and this drum shaped incense burner was likely meant to be used as part of a Lacandone ceremony. The Lacandone worship a number of deities, many of which have their roots in ancient Maya tradition. Religious ceremonies can take place at a number of sacred sites, including natural caves, Mayan ruins, and in small house-like structures within the villages called “god houses.” These ceremonies traditionally included offerings of food and/or drink to the deities and the burning of copal incense. The incense, made of tree resins, is burned in special pottery vessels called “god pots.” These incense burners are shaped like a simple round bowl with a large human-like face modeled on the rim. While the faces of these pots are all very similar, the pots are often painted with specific colors and patterns to indicate that the pot is a representation of a specific deity.

Other examples of Lacandone pottery can be found at Williams College Museum of Art, the National Museum of the American Indian, the Milwaukee Public Museum, and others.

The following video shows a Lacandone drum similar the one at the Sam Noble Museum being used. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Jar

E/1968/6/11
Jar
Raramuri (Tarahumara)
Mexico: Sierra Madre Occidental or Copper Canyon
Date unknown
Materials: Ceramic & slip

This water storage jar was made by the Raramuri (Tarahumara) people of northwestern Mexico. The name Raramuri means “foot-runner” or “he who walks well” and this tribal group is renowned for their long distance running and hiking abilities. The Raramuri came to live in the remote canyons and mountains of the Sierra Madre Occidental after encountering Spanish settlers in their previous homelands in the Chihuahua region of Mexico during the 16th-18th centuries. Their first contact with the Spaniards was with the Jesuit missionaries around 1607. In addition to religion, the missionaries also brought new agricultural techniques such as irrigation, the plow and the axe to the Raramuri. During the 17th century silver was discovered on Raramuri lands and much of their territory was confiscated and many of the Raramuri were captured to serve as forced laborers in the mines. This caused the tribe to move deeper into the mountainous areas of the Sierra Madre Occidental, where they made an effort to avoid further outside contact. The Raramuri are primarily farmers specialized in raising corn, goats, cattle, beans, potatoes, and apples but are also expert hunters. In modern times they have also begun selling their pottery, drums and baskets in the tourist trade.

The following video shows how the Raramuri live today.

© Arizona State Museum

Pottery has been used by the Raramuri for many years as everyday storage and cooking containers and is often used in their religious rituals as well. Pottery vessels are also particularly important to the Raramuri for the brewing of tesguino, a corn-based beer that is brewed in ceramic jars. Raramuri pottery historically was unpainted and decorated primarily with attached leather and rawhide. Today painted pottery is becoming more common as a part of the tourist trade. The “paint”, a type of thin mineral slip, is obtained from red ochre, iron oxide or hematite and applied by hand or using a feather or cloth-wrapped stick as a brush. The pottery is hand made by coiling a thin rope of clay on top of itself into the desired shape. The surface is then smoothed and the coils are fused together using a piece of gourd, stone or wood. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Chocolate whisk

E/1978/5/9
Chocolate whisk (Molinillo)
Tlacolulu, Oaxaca, Mexico
ca. 1978
Materials: Wood

This object is a chocolate whisk, sometimes called a molinillo. Whisks like this one are used to make chocolate foam, a Mexican specialty, used in many traditional drinks and recipes. Chocolate is made from cacao, a type of seed found in fruit produced by Theobroma Cacao trees, and is native to Mexico and Central America. Making chocolate from the cacao seeds is a long and involved process. The seeds must be fermented and then dried, roasted, shelled, ground, and pressed before it can be mixed with milk and sugar to form the candy we all know and love. However, prior to European contact, chocolate was traditionally served as a drink and was not sweetened like most modern chocolates. In fact it isn’t uncommon in traditional Mexican cuisine to find recipes that use chili’s along with chocolate. Chocolate whisks like this one were invented by the Spaniard colonists in Mexico around the 1700′s.  Prior to the invention of the molinillo, chocolate froth was made by pouring the drink back-and-forth from one cup to another.  The whisks are used in a single container with the handle extending out of the top. The handle is rotated by rubbing it rapidly between the user’s hands.

The following video shows how chocolate whisks are used.

[Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Amate paper charms

E/1980/3/6-12
Amate paper charms
Otomi
Central America: Mexico: Puebla
Unknown (likely 20th century)
Materials: Amate paper

Amate paper is a type of bark cloth that has been produced in Mexico for hundreds of years. While many tribal groups in Mexico have produced this type of paper, dating back to the Aztec Empire, today the Otomi people are best know for their amate paper production. The Otomi tribe lives primarily in the Mexican state of Puebla, though smaller communities can be found in Veracruz and Hidalgo. Today charms like these from the Sam Noble Museum‘s Ethnology Collection are frequently sold as tourist items however, the Otomi originally produced paper charms like these for a ritual purpose. There are traditionally two types of paper produced, one light in color and another dark. Cut out figures made from light colored paper are thought to be good spirits or blessings and figures made from dark paper are thought to be demons or curses. These figures were cut out by shamans of the tribe during a special ceremony. The figurines could then be used in rituals and presented as offerings to the spirits. The rituals were usually performed to cure and prevent disease or to ensure good harvests and healthy livestock.

Several different types of trees are used to produce amate paper. This type of paper can be made from various types of ficus and mulberry trees, known as Amate, Jonote, or Xalama Limon. The different types of bark produce different colored paper. The paper is made by harvesting thin strips of bark which are then boiled in water and lime for an extended period of time. After the bark has been boiled to the appropriate texture it is cooled and rinsed. The bark is then laid out in a grid pattern on a hard surface and the fibers are pounded together using stones. Finally the paper is allowed to dry and is then ready for use. A video of the process can be found below.

Other examples of traditional amate paper charms can be found at the University of Missouri’s Museum of Anthropology, the National Museum of the American Indian, the Museum of International Folk Art, and others. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Lance

E/1955/28/1-2
Bullfighting lances or Picas
Mexico
20th century
Materials: Wood, metal nail, paper

Bullfighting has been a favorite sport in Mexico for many years. Originally introduced to Mexico by the Spanish, Mexican matadores perform specific moves, occasionally using a piece of red cloth, to encourage the bull to charge them. As the bull charges, the matadore will try to avoid being trampled while simultaneously injuring the bull. The

Photo from http://www.heatheronhertravels.com

lances, or picas, from the Sam Noble Museum‘s Ethnology Collection were meant to be stuck into the neck of the bull as it charges. The metal tips of the lances are made from nails and are sharpened to form small hooks that are meant to catch in the bull’s flesh. These injuries, and the resulting blood loss, will slowly tire the bull and in the end, the bull is killed with a sword. The pica originated in Spanish bullfighting as the weapon used by the picadores, one of three sets of fighters that would engage the bull. Typically, a Mexican bullfighting event includes other activities or shows leading up to the the bullfight as the main event and can easily last all day.

Thousands of bullfighting events occur annually in Mexico, Spain, and other parts of Central America. Despite their popularity, recently there have been increased efforts to stop the sport, now seen by many to be cruel and inhumane. Bullfighting is now banned from National Spanish Television, and the Spanish region of Catalonia has banned the practice. There are also a number of groups attempting to pass bullfighting bans in Mexico, Ecuador, and other areas of Spain.

The following link will connect you to a National Geographic video with more information on the bullfighting tradition in Mexico. Viewer discretion is advised however as this video includes footage of actual bullfights.
http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/player/places/culture-places/sports/mexico_bullfighting.html [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Ball

E/1968/2/6
Tarahumara: Ball
Central America
20th Century
Materials: wood

This wooden ball facilitates a game of endurance running for the Tarahumara Indians of Mexico. The wooden ball is used in a game called rarajipari or “foot throwing.” The ball is kicked in relays for up to days at a time, depending on whether it is an impromptu game or one planned well in advance. In games that are planned, bets are often taken by spectators. Referring to themselves as Raramuri, meaning “foot runner,” “running foot,” or “light foot,” their daily activities consist of long distance running and traveling in high altitudes and hot, rough terrain. There is somewhat of a cult following from the runners of ultra marathons, who admire the endurance and bare-footed or Huarache-wearing running style of the Raramuri.

Residing in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico, and mostly in harsh environments of heat and high altitude, many Raramuri are far from what many perceive as “modern” civilization. Many still live in cliffs, caves and stone houses. Their economic system is based on bartering and trade, rather than the national currency.

This YouTube video is a short documentary of the lives of the Raramuri. At the five minute mark, they address the kickball game and history of running in this culture.

[Stephanie Adams]