Object: Bronze Head

Figure 1 Bronze Head from the Ethnology Collection of the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History

E/1955/18/138
Bronze Head
Dynastic China
Location: Asia, China
Unknown Date
Materials: Bronze

We can learn a great deal by looking at the details of objects to uncover the mystery of what they mean. This Chinese statue is an excellent example. It is a large 32-inch tall hollow cast bronze head of a woman. By looking closely at the head, we can see she has an elaborate hairstyle with an ornate headpiece. The headpiece has a miniature figure of Buddha in front, over her forehead. Her eyes are closed, as if asleep, and she has a slight smile on her lips. There is no evidence that there was ever a body attached to this head. So what are we to make of this unusual object?

Figure 2 Map of China, showing the extent of the Shang Dynasty in comparison to Modern Day China

 

First, we look at how it was made. The process of bronze casting is very old, beginning in China around 1600 BC, in what was known as the Shang Dynasty. Bronze is an alloy, or combination, of copper and tin and forms a very durable metal. While we do not know how old this statue is, it certainly developed out of this long-standing bronze working tradition.

Figure 3 Example of a Chinese Bronze Casting Mold

With her serene facial expression, this head may represent the figure of Kuan Yin (Kwan Yin) or “She Who Hears the Cries of the World,” goddess of mercy, compassion, kindness, and love in the Buddhist faith. This Chinese Buddhist goddess is said to be based on a real woman. According to one legend, Kuan Yin’s father murdered her and she went down to the underworld. When she got there, she recited words from the Buddhist holy books, preventing the god of the underworld from torturing the souls of the dead. He was not pleased, so he sent Kuan Yin back to be alive once more. After returning to the world of the living, she spent all her time studying Buddhist ideas and teachings, learning from the Buddha. As a result of her dedication and her compassionate nature, the Buddha made her immortal, and she became the goddess of mercy and compassion.

Figure 4 Kuan Yin Statue made of ceramic, image courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art

In paintings, Kuan Yin is often depicted as wearing white robes and sitting on a lotus flower, which also symbolizes peace. Sometimes she is even shown with a thousand heads and a thousand arms, so that she can more effectively bestow her mercy on the world. Stories about Kuan Yin seem to have begun with stories about a male Indian boddhisatva (holy person) called Avlokitesvara. By the 1^st Century AD in China, Kuan Yin not only changed names, she also changed genders! She is known my many different name all across East Asia, and a wide range of different stories are told about her.

If you want to see this bronze statue for yourself, come by the Sam Noble Museum! It is currently on exhibit in our Orientation Gallery, the first gallery to the right after you enter the main part of the museum!

Take a look at this great video by the San Diego Museum of Art on the history of Buddhism:

[Stephanie Lynn Allen]

Object: Bronze Sculpture

Figure 1 “Something to Believe In” by Willard Stone from the Fine Art Collection of the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History

ART/1999/2/189
Title: “Something to Believe In”
Artist: Willard Stone (Cherokee name: Ne-ah-yah)
Tribe: Cherokee, NGD (Non-Government Descendent)
Date: Mid 20^th Century
Materials: Bronze on Wood base

Figure 2 Young Willard Stone at work in his studio

This beautiful bronze statue, titled “Something to Believe In,” is 8 inches tall and 20 inches long and is mounted on a wooden base. It depicts a young Native American boy lying on his stomach with his head propped up in his hands, contemplating a small turtle. He is wearing fringed buckskin pants, moccasins, and three feathers in his hair. It was created by master sculptor Willard Stone. You can see other versions of this statue at museums such as the Willard Stone Museum in Locust Grove, OK. In fact, Willard Stone made 30 statues that looked just like this one. Why do you think he would have made so many similar sculptures?

Willard Stone stated of this piece: “We have got to get back to the good earth and basic things. Our kids have got to believe in nature and know that all of man’s needs come from God and natural things that surround us. This bronze represents the three basics: 1. the terrapin (turtle): Nature, 2. the Indian boy; our off-spring; and 3. the three feathers; the Great Spirit, or God.” Stone often dealt with themes expressing the wonder of nature in his art. What do you feel when you look at this piece?

Some insight into the meaning of this sculpture can be found in Willard Stone’s life and extraordinary artistic career. Stone was born Feb 29, 1916 near Muskogee, OK. He attended Bacone Indian College in 1936, studying under Acee Blue Eagle and Woody Crumbo, two of the most famous Native American artists of the 20^th Century. Stone typically worked in wood and bronze and was inspired by the world around him which included his children as well as the beauty of nature. For many years, he could not support himself and his family solely through his art, but, by 1961 he had become nationally recognized and was able to devote all of his time to the work he so loved. Stone was of mixed heritage, and even though his affiliation with the Cherokee Nation was never recognized (he was a Non-Government Enrolled Descendant Cherokee American), he greatly identified with the beliefs of the Cherokee people. This was a huge inspiration for much of his sculpture.

Figure 3 Oil painting called “Willard Stone with ‘Uprooted’” by painter Gloria Schumann

Willard Stone died March 5, 1985, having created hundreds of sculptures that now reside in museums across the country. He was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1970.  His artistic drive lives on in his son Jason M. Stone, who has followed in his father’s footsteps to become an incredible sculptor in his own right.

 

[Stephanie Lynn Allen]

Object: Coin

C/1956/9/2
Coin (As or aes)
Roman
Nîmes (Nemausus), France
10-14 CE
Materials: Bronze

This bronze coin, or as, was produced in a mint in the Roman town of Nemausus, now Nîmes in southern France, in about 10-14 CE. Assis were a primary unit of Roman currency, similar to a dollar in US currency today, and had the same value as 12 unciae (or ounces). The obverse, or heads, side of the coin shows the emperor Augustus (aka. Octavian) and his friend and general Marcus Agrippa. Augustus is considered to be the first Roman emperor, and was the adopted son of Julius Caesar (his uncle). After the assassination of Julius Caesar a triumvirate, or alliance between three leaders, was formed amongst Augustus, Marc Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus to avenge the death of Caesar and bring his murderers to justice. Over time this alliance broke down and resulted in a civil war between Augustus and Marc Antony. During this conflict Marc Antony allied himself with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII. Cleopatra had strong ties to Rome, and owed much of her reign to the influence of Julius Caesar. She had an illegitimate son with Julius Caesar and was famously involved with Marc Antony, having three children with him just prior to their deaths. The reverse, or tails, side of the coin shows a crocodile chained to a palm tree. The chained crocodile is meant to represent the Roman victory against Cleopatra VII of Egypt in 31 BCE, and end of the Roman civil war against Marc Antony. The victory at the Battle of Actium, signaled the final defeat of Antony and was lead by Augustus and Agrippa. Roughly four years after this victory, the Roman town of Nemausus was given the name “colonia” and veterans from Augustus’ force in the war were given lands in and around Nemausus. This coin, and others like it, were produced around the time of Augustus’ (14 CE) and Agrippa’s (12 CE) deaths, to honor them and the victory that gave many of the residents of Nemausus their lands.

The following video describes the Battle of Actium in more detail.

[Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Figurine

C/1948/4/1
Figurine
Etruscan
Italy: Etruria (roughly equivalent to modern day Tuscany)
mid-5th century BCE
Materials: Bronze, wood (modern base)

This object is a small figure of a reclining man on a couch or kline, done in bronze and attached to a modern wooden base. We believe the figure in our collection is Etruscan in origin and was a decoration from the rim of an urn or other object. Sometime around 850 BCE the Etruscans settled in the land between the Tiber and Arno Rivers in Italy. It is not currently known where the Etruscans came from, but many suspect they may have immigrated from Asia Minor and/or the Eastern Mediterranean. While they were primarily a farming culture, the Etruscans also had a strong military that was able to dominate much of the Italian peninsula, including the city of Rome, by the sixth century BCE. This contact with the newly formed Roman state significantly influenced Roman culture. The following video will highlight some of the Etruscan’s artistic creations and their influence on Mediterranean culture.

Much of what we know about Etruscan culture comes from archaeological excavations of their settlements and tombs or tumuli. Etruscan tombs were elaborate in-ground structures covered by a large mound of earth. Inside these tombs, archaeologists have found plastered walls with detailed frescoes that provide useful details of everyday Etruscan life. One of the most popular of these scenes is the banqueting scene. These scenes show one or more people reclining, like the figurine above, on a raised couch or platform while being served food and drink. These scenes both depicted everyday life and had symbolic meaning in the funerary context. Banqueting scenes remained popular forms of funerary art throughout the Mediterranean region, even into early Christian times. In the Etruscan version of the banqueting scene it is common to see a man reclining on the kline along side a woman (presumably his wife).  Greek and Roman banqueting scenes typically show only men, as it is thought that women in these cultures generally led more sheltered and sequestered lives than their Etruscan counterparts.  [Chelsea Pierce]

Object: Coin

C/1982/2/7
Bronze semis coin
Roman
Italy
275-270 BCE
Materials: Bronze

Roman coins from the Republican era like this example were not struck like Greek coins, but cast in molds. The casting process required more metal and made heavier coins. Early Roman coin makers attempted to approximate the value of their coins through weight, so a heavy coin was worth more than a light coin. As the Roman Empire expanded, the cost of producing this type of coin became too great and lead to the adoption of struck coins. This coin is a semis, a denomination of bronze coin meaning “half” that was worth half of an as. Roman Republican denominations for cast bronze coinage are all based on the unit of the as. The as was 1 Roman pound (roughly 324 grams) and was divided into 12 unciae, or ounces. So, by this system, an as was 1 Roman pound of bronze and a semis was half a Roman pound of bronze.

This semis has a Pegasus on both the obverse (heads side) and reverse (tails side). In Greek mythology Pegasus was a winged horse, and a child of Medusa and the sea/horse god Poseidon. Pegasus was born, along with his twin brother Chrysaor, when the Greek hero Perseus cut off Medusa’s head. Pegasus was believed to have transported thunder and lightening for Zeus, created a magical fountain on Mt. Helicon, and helped the Greek hero Bellerophon to defeat the Chimera before being made into a constellation by Zeus. Images of Pegasus appear on coins from throughout the Mediterranean region and are particularly common on coins from Corinth. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Bronze Lion Statuette

C/1957/14/8
Gilt bronze lion
Ca. 17th Century
Italian
Materials: bronze, gilt

The lion–the king of the jungle–has been the symbol of power and bravery for centuries, dating to 675 BCE with the Lion Gate of Mycenae. Also known as the conquering lion, this symbol is known cross-culturally in contexts of astronomy, politics, and military. Displaying a lion statuette can indicate power and wealth, provide decoration, and invoke fear in its viewers. In the figure pictured above, the lion is protectively laying his right front paw on an orb, another timeless heraldic symbol. Generally the orb is a symbol for the universe. This small lion statuette holds a much larger meaning: protecting the universe.

This particular lion figure is very small, measuring 1.5 inches high by 2 inches long and is more likely to have been used as decoration in a smaller home. Generally, these figures were displayed guarding the gates to a home garden or city-state. The gilt bronze lion statuette was made using the lost wax bronze casting technique. This method can be broken down into thirteen major steps beginning with making the mold and ending with polishing the figure. The following video demonstrates how contemporary sculptors follow similar steps to create a statue in the same way that the lion would have been made back in the 17th century.

Bronze is a melted combination of copper and tin, but gilding bronze adds a few materials. This additional step increases the value of the object by adding ground gold and mercury to the materials. The gold remains with the other metals while the mercury evaporates. This golden outer shell gives the appearance of a solid gold statue. Due to the materials and the small size of the statue pictured above, it was probably owned by someone who was trying to reflect great wealth without possessing it. Someone who could afford to own any piece of art in the seventeenth century sent the message to others that they had enough money to afford luxury goods.

[Anna Sauer]

Object: Bronze Pin

C/1998/1/61
Luristan: Bronze Pin
Iran
ca. 1400-700 BC
Middle East
Materials : Bronze

The Luristan bronzes are well known among the artifacts of ancient Persia, in modern day Iran. The earliest bronzes date back to the fourth millennium BCE and extend through the Bronze Age, ending about 650 BCE. Unlike their contemporaries of Mesopotamia, Luristans did not have written records. They did, however, develop techniques for fashioning objects from bronze. It is unclear exactly how bronze production developed in Luristan, but most likely the technique originated in the Mediterranean and expanded to the Middle Eastern region through three phases.

The Lusristan bronzes are usually decorated in distinct styles including animal, human, and anthropomorphic figures. Many objects are fashioned in wax forms and cast in bronze as seen here. The objects range from decorative sacred items to utilitarian items. The object pictured above is a bronze pin. Pins are not particularly uncommon, as many have been found in excavations of Luristan sites. The pins were used for decoration in hair styles and fastening clothes. In addition to using bronze for bowls, drinking vessels, and decorative items, the Luristans also used it for weaponry. The British Museum has a great example of a bronze ax head that was found in a grave and mostly likely used as an offering because it is too curved for practical use. Bronze is found even in the poorest of Luristan graves, which has led to looting over time. In the early 20th century, many tombs and archaeological sites were looted and bronze objects appeared in European and Middle Eastern markets.

[Eileen Schaumleffle]

Object: Coin

C/1982/7/10
Roman: Coin
BCE 7, Caesar Augustus
Materials: Bronze

Coins like this were used throughout Roman history. From the monarchy to the republic and finally the empire, coins would depict Greco/Roman deities and emperors. Pressed into the bronze is an image of Caesar Augustus, the first Roman emperor, who reigned from 17 B.C. to 14 A.D. Anointed emperors would have their own images stamped onto new coins, or over old ones.

The coins are made by hammering or pressing a ‘dye’ onto the ‘blank’. The dyes would be sent along Rome’s extensive road network to towns across the Empire. There, craftsmen-minters would have the tools needed to mint coin blanks from metal that was mined in their region. On the dyes, propaganda, religious, and political symbols were depicted. A trend began during the reign of the imperial predecessor, Julius Caesar, to begin minting the faces of rulers onto the coins. As Roman influence and conquest expanded, what better psychological tool than money to let the newly conquered know who was in charge? Roman coins found their way to Britain, Spain, Carthage, Egypt, and the Middle East.

Like modern currency, Roman coins often featured abbreviations. This 7 B.C.E. coin has the head of Augustus on the front, and on the back has “SC,” meaning “Senatus Consulto” or “by Decree of the Senate.” The name of the moneyer, Ssalvus Otho, is printed along the edge. ‘Moneyer’ was a high level position, of which four existed at any given time during Rome’s imperial era.

[Jordan Dikeman]

Object: Bracelet

C/1998/1/9
Iran/Luristan: Bronze Bangle Bracelet
Middle East
1400 – 700 B.C.
Materials: Bronze

This object is a bronze bangle bracelet. The ends of each terminal have two stylized duck heads. The heads are flat and face away from the opening with circles carved on each side as eyes. The heads sit on separate oval shaped planes, which attach to a small circle on the bracelet’s band. The body of the bracelet has three bands. The outer bands are decorated with dot indentations, while the center band has “v” stamped decorative striations. The inside of the bracelet is smooth. The bracelet is nearly a perfect circle, with a few slight bends.

It is believed the origin of bracelets dates back approximately 7,000 years to ancient Egypt. Bracelets were made of wood, bone, and plant fibers initially, and later of copper and bronze. The earliest known bracelets in the Middle East were worn by the Sumerians who inhabited Southern Mesopotamia around 2500 B.C. Bracelets, as well as earrings, necklaces, and rings, were worn by women to show off the wealth and social status of their husbands. Jewelry often had religious connotations in addition to the perception of wealth and adornment.

The use of the duck in ancient Iranian art symbolized their belief that ducks were one of only a few creatures able to pass between the “Three Worlds” — Underworld, our World, and Realm of the Sky. Ducks were at home on land or water; they dove or fed beneath the surface of the water, which was considered the entrance to the Underworld. Finally, they were able to fly into the sky amidst the clouds and out of human sight.

This bracelet is from the Luristan territory (also known as Loristan) along the western Iran and eastern Iraq border. The first known people to occupy the territories currently inhabited by the Lurs were the Elamites, who settled in the area as early as 3000 B.C. Later the Kassites, who were known for their bronze artifacts, lived in Luristan around the second millennium B.C. The Kassites conquered Babylonia in 1747 B.C. and continued to dominate Mesopotamia for the next six centuries.

[Debra Taylor]

Object: Coin

C/1981/1/27
Judaean: Coin
AD 66-70
Materials: Bronze

This small bronze coin was minted by Jewish rebels who attempted to free Judaea from Roman rule during the First Jewish Revolt in A.D. 66-70.

Herod was in Rome in 40 BC, when the senate appointed him king of Judaea (the area surrounding Jerusalem). He entered Palestinian region with a Roman army, and by 37 BC he was firmly in control of his new kingdom. He ruled Judaea until his death in 4 BC, becoming known to history as Herod the Great.   Known as a great builder, Herod founded new Roman cities, and created a new Temple on the holy mount in Jerusalem.  However, he was also known as a violet ruler.  He killed his wife and her family in an outburst of jealousy.

In his will Herod divided the kingdom between three of his sons. Their inability to control an increasingly turbulent Palestine prompted Rome to give more power to its provincial governors, or procurators. These rulers could not pacify the Jewish people, who were resentful of Roman rule and horrified by any encroachment of Roman religious symbolism (including what they considered the idolatrous theme of a divine emperor). During this tumultuous period the Zealots emerged.  The Zealots were a radical political group committed to ending Roman rule in Palestine.

In A.D. 41, Herod Agrippa was appointed king of Judaea.  He was the grandson of Herod the Great.  For a while, under the rule of Agrippa, Palestine seemed set to enjoy a stability associated with the long reign of Herod the Great. But when Agrippa dies in A.D. 44, the region once again returns to the rule of Roman governors. By this time the violent actions of the Zealots had acquired much support, reinforced by their assassination of Jews who collaborate with the Romans. The Zealots were prominent in the popular uprising which in A.D. 66 expelled the Romans from Jerusalem.  They also played a large part in the revolutionary government which briefly ruled Palestine following the revolt.

The First Jewish Revolt is crushed when Emperor Nero sent General Vespasian and his son Titus to Judaea.  They make progress in restoring Roman order to Palestine. Nero’s suicide prompted Vespasian to return to Rome, leaving Titus in Palestine.  In A.D. 70, Titus besieged Jerusalem and demolished parts of the city wall.  The great Temple built by Herod was looted and burned, with much of the spoils returning to Rome with Titus.

First Jewish Revolt coinage was issued by the Jews after the Zealots captured Jerusalem and the Jewish Temple from the Romans in 66 AD at the beginning of the First Jewish Revolt. The Jewish leaders of the Revolt minted their own coins to emphasize their newly obtained independence from Rome.

In the Revolt’s first year (66–67 AD), the Jews minted only silver coins, which were struck from the Temple’s store of silver. During the second (67–68 AD) and third (69–70 AD) years of the Revolt bronze prutah coins were issued. In the fourth year of the Revolt (70–71 AD) three large sizes of bronze coins were minted, possibly because the supplies of Temple silver were diminishing.

[Debra Taylor]