Object: Ornament

E/1956/2/32
Feather ornament (or “tail”)
Machiguena
Peru
ca 1955
Materials: Feathers, cloth twine

This feather ornament is described in the Ethnology catalog as a “tail” that is meant to be attached to the back of a man’s robe, called a manchakintsi or cushma. The donor that collected with particular “tail” also donated the cushma it was meant to go with, E/1956/2/11, shown on the right. These objects were made by a member of the Machiguenga tribe of Peru. The Machiguenga are a part of the Arawakan linguistic family, a group of languages spoken throughout South and Central America. The Machiguenga live in the upper mountain rain forest of Southeastern Peru. The Machiguenga grow manioc, bananas, maize, sweet potatoes, peanuts and a variety of other crops in small agricultural plots cleared out of the forest. They supplement their diet by hunting, fishing and gathering other native foods from the forest. Feather ornaments, especially crowns and necklaces are popular amongst the Machiguenga.

Do you know any additional information on this type of ornament? Can you identify the type of feathers used? Let us know what you know. Provide a comment to this weblog or via email to dcswan@ou.edu. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Basket

E/2011/3/1
Basket
Xerente
South America: Brazil: Tocantins: Mateiros
ca. 1990-2000
Materials: Grass

This basket, made of golden grass (Syngonanthus nitens) and fiber from the buriti palm (Mauritia flexuosa) was made in the village of Mateiros in the state of Tocantins, Brazil. Golden grass is not actually a grass, but instead is a grass-like species from the Eriocaulaceae family, native to the Brazilian cerrado. These plants produce small white flowers each year but are prized for their shiny metallic stems. Golden grass weaving is thought to have been developed by the indigenous Xerente (or Sherente) people. Today golden grass is used to make a large number of products, primarily for the tourist trade. It is currently one of the most important economic sources in the Jalapão area of Tocantins, Brazil. For that reason local government and community groups have been working to ensure the sustainability of this precious natural resource. Amongst these efforts is a limit on when the plants can be harvested, and a ban on the sale of the raw materials to outside areas.

The following video show what the raw material looks like and includes a weaving demonstration.

[Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Necklace

E/1955/2/3
Necklace
Witoto
South America: Colombia or Peru
ca. 1954
Materials: Insect legs, thread

This necklace is made from the the upper legs of a beetle native to Central and South America and can be found from Mexico to Brazil and Argentina. This beetle, the giant metallic ceiba borer (Euchroma gigantea), is a member of the Buprestidae family, which are also known as “jewel beetles.” This type of beetle has been used by native groups in Central and South America for natural jewelry and food. The species can be eaten in both the larval and adult stages – Tzeltal-Mayans in southern Mexico (Chiapas) roast the adults when available, and the Tukanoans (northwestern Amazon) eat the larvae. These beetles vary in color throughout their lives. When they first emerge from their pupa they are covered in a bright yellow-green colored waxy “bloom.” This bloom is secreted by the adult after transforming from the pupa and prior to emerging from its larval host. After the beetle emerges and becomes active, the bloom is quickly rubbed off and the beetle takes on the shiny, iridescent purple-green color. In its larval form the giant metallic ceiba borer typically inhabit soft wood of trees in the Bombacaceae family, such as the giant ceiba or kapok tree (Ceiba petandra). The adult beetles are usually seen walking or flying around the trunks of the trees.

The Witoto tribe of South America lives along the Caquetá (also known as the Japurá) and Putumayo (also known as the Içá) rivers, in the Amazon region of Colombia and Peru. The Witoto tribe consists of more than 100 subgroups, many based on the names of villages, and are closely related to their traditional enemies the Bora tribe. The Witoto are primarily hunters and farmers, their staple crop being manioc. In addition, they also grow plantains, bananas, yams, papayas, sweet potatoes, mangoes, palms, peanuts, cacao, sugarcane, maize, tobacco, and coca.  In order to ensure that their fields remain fertile in the notoriously thin soil of the Amazon, the Witoto follow a strict schedule of crop rotation and allow their plots of land to go fallow for at least ten years before they are replanted. Traditionally, Witoto men wore a breechclout of bark cloth, and women only body paint. On ritual or ceremonial occasions individuals would wear necklaces and ornaments determined by their status within the tribe.  When first contacted by European explorers the population of the Witoto tribe was around 50,000. After years of forced labor, the introduction of new types of diseases and tribal migrations it is now believed there are between 7,000 and 10,000 Witoto left in the Amazon. A video discussing the Witoto way of life can be found at Britannica.com. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Manioc press

E/1967/32/3
Manioc press
Unknown Lowland Amazonian tribe
South America: possibly Colombia
Unknown date
Materials: Plant fibers

Manioc, also called yuca or cassava, a woody shrub native to South America, is extensively grown by native groups of South

Photo by Grete Howard, http://www.flickr.com/photos/11683866@N06/

America and Africa for its edible starchy root. This root, which somewhat resembles a sweet potato, is a major source of carbohydrates for these groups despite containing dangerous levels of a cyanide-like substance called prussic acid. Careful preparation is required to eliminate the poisonous substance from the tuber prior to eating. This substance, while potentially harmful to humans, helps to naturally protect the plant from pests and insects. Many South American tribes use a press similar to the one shown above

Photo by Marion & Tony Morrison, http://www.southamericanpictures.com/resume/resume.htm

to help eliminate the poison from their manioc. In South America, manioc is typically processed by peeling and grating the tuber and then rinsing, straining and pressing the liquids out until the remaining material forms a flour-like powder. The manioc flour is then typically used for making breads, though today manioc flour (also sometimes called tapioca flour) is becoming popular as a gluten-free food source and thickener.

The following video shows the process of harvesting, processing, and using manioc in Guyana.

Similar manioc presses can be found in the Peabody Museum, the National Museum of the American Indian, the National Museum of Ethnology in Japan and others.

[Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Tsantsa

E/1949/10/1
Tsantsa (fake)
Shuar
South America: Ecuador or Peru
Unknown (likely early 20th century)
Materials: Leather, hair, fur

The South American Shuar people, called Jivaro (meaning savage) by Euro-American traders, practiced ritual head shrinking for many years. Today tsantsa, or shrunken heads are displayed in museums as treasured artifacts of warfare; however, to the Shuar the head-shrinking ritual served a more important purpose. To the Shuar, the tsantsa is used to trap the muisak or avenging soul of slain persons. Tribal conflicts between the Ecuadorian Shuar and their Achuar neighbors often lead to deaths. In order to keep the muisak of a slain person from harming the warrior who killed him, the Shuar practiced a ritual head shrinking. The head of the slain person would be collected and taken back to the Shuar camp, where the skin would then be removed from the skull. The resulting skin pouch would be filled with hot sand or rock to dry and shrink the pouch. The eyes and mouth would then be sewed shut, the mouth with 3 loops indicating the 3-night ritual process of feasts and dancing. Charcoal from balsa wood would then be rubbed on the skin to create a blackened, oily appearance. The Shuar believed that this process would contain the avenging spirit inside the head, preventing it from harming the warrior responsible for his death. After the rituals were complete, the Shuar had varying uses for the tsantsa. Some warriors kept their heads, usually in a private location, only displaying the tsantsa in special circumstances. Other Shuar disposed of their tsantsa in the forest as the ritual purpose of the tsantsa was fulfilled, and the Shuar did not attribute any monetary value to them.

In the late 19^th century, Victorian expeditions searching for gold discovered the tsantsa. Intrigued by the gruesome artifacts, traders exchanged guns and steel blades for the heads, many of which found their way into museums like the Sam Noble. While the Shuar were not actively producing tsantsa due to legislation and Catholic missionary influence, the market for the heads encouraged the tribesman to create tsantsa “fakes.”  These counterfeits include heads that are from non-human specimens such as monkeys  or heads made by non-tribal people, many coming from unclaimed bodies in the morgue. We believe the tsantsa in the Ethnology Collection of the Sam Noble Museum to be a shrunken head not of a human, but of some sort of primate.

These fakes are still on the market today and can be easily spotted if one knows what to look for. For one, the lips of true tsantsa would have been sewn with heavy cotton strings, making three loops. Many fakes were sewn with thin string that indicates their lack of authenticity. Also, the real tsantsa have very fine nasal hair; Skin that was taken from a goat to be formed into a fake tsantsa would not have such hair. There would also be a stitch at the top of the head for a thread-loop for the slayer to hold or hang the head by, which most fakes lack. Also, fakes would lack the smooth oily skin achieved by rubbing it with charcoal.

While the ethical debate surrounding the display of human remains in museums continues, there are still many museums that display their collection of tsantsa heads. These museums include (The SNMONH cannot vouch for the authenticity of these heads) the Lightner Museum, St. Augustine, Florida; Museum Of America Madrid, Spain; Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford, England; and the Memphis Pink Palace Museum, Memphis, Tennessee. It is important for visitors to remember that these heads should not be taken out of historical context and in no way offer complete representation of the Shuar culture. Many museums recognize the sensitive nature of these artifacts and have removed their tsantsa from exhibition. Have you seen tsantsa heads in any other museums? We would love to know what you thought of them.  Should tsantsa heads remain on display? Comment below!

For more information see:
Rubenstein, Steven Lee
2007  Circulation, Accumulation, and the Power of Shuar Shrunken Heads.. Cultural Anthropology 22(3): 357-399
Rubenstein, Steven Lee
2004   Shuar Migrants and Shrunken Heads, Face to Face in a New York Museum.  Anthropology Today 20(3): 15–19.
Shah, Tahir
2001  A Price On Their Heads. Geographical.
[Chelsea Pierce]

Object: Flute

E/1956/25/1
Quena, flute
Peru: Inca, Quechua
Materials: Copper

Traditionally constructed from bone, ceramic or cane, this flute known as the quena is considered a fundamental aspect of South American music. Research suggests that it was developed during the reign of the Inca Empire, which spanned over a vast portion of the continent, and was centralized in the Andes Mountains of Peru. There is evidence, however, that notched flutes similar to the quena were being used by the Moche culture along the Peruvian coast, dating back to 100 CE.

In the mid 15th century, a power began to rise in the mountains of Peru, eventually becoming the Inca Empire, ranging from Columbia in the north all the way to Chile in the South. The Incas were very successful at maintaining control over the various indigenous peoples within their empire, and had an extremely effective method of food production and storage. They also were skilled architects, erecting temples, cities and complex road systems with precision. The Inca people, along with their technological and agricultural advancements, were highly ritualistic. Dancing and music at festivals is likely how the quena flute became integrated into the Inca culture, and later dispersed to other regions in the Americas.

This particular instrument is a contemporary version of the traditional quena, and like many others, is made of copper. A distinct feature of quena flutes is a notch in the mouthpiece, typically in a U, V or square shape. The different shapes of the notch result in slightly different acoustics, but all quenas produce a light, lyrical, bird-like sound. While the quena is historically significant, it continues to be in use today throughout South America, in both traditional festivals in the Andean region and also incorporated into contemporary, popular music. [Kristina Sokolowsky]

Object: Balero

E/1930/1/1
Latin America: possibly Peruvian
Date unknown
Materials: wood, string

This object is a balero toy from Latin America. Baleros are fashioned from a ball and a pin joined together by a string. Usually, the ball contains a small cylindrical opening that fits over the pin. Balero toys are similar to cup-and-ball games, in which players attempt to sling a ball into a cup by manipulating the movement of the ball from the string. Balero players maneuver the ball by holding the pin and swinging the ball into the air with the string while attempting to catch it on the tip of the pin.

Baleros are thought to have originated from bilboquets in France during the sixteenth century. Bilboquets are variants of the ball-and-pin toys and monarchs, such as King Henry III of France, popularized the game in the European royal courts. Eventually, the game spread to the Americas, though there is evidence similar games existed among indigenous groups for many years before interactions with Europeans. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, balero toys became fashionable among elite circles, and King Louis XV was reported to have owned several ivory ball-and-pin sets.

Today, baleros are common in tourist shops and toy stores around the world. Versions of balero toys from different countries can be seen here. The game has also been featured in music and art work, as in the work pictured to the left. However, for most children and adults, baleros remain a simple, yet enjoyable diversion.

[Lauren Simons]