Object: Instrument

E/1956/3/1
Ravanahatha (or Ravanhatta or Rawanhatho)
Hindu
India
ca. 1950s
Materials: Wood, coconut shell, mother of pearl, leather

This fiddle-like instrument from India is called a Ravanahatha (or Ravanhatta or Rawanhatho). It is has a wooden body and a small coconut resonator covered in skin. There is one melody string made from horsehair, a single metal drone string and a number of sympathetic strings. The following is a video showing a Ravanahatha being played.

According to legend, this instrument was first created by the mythological figure Ravana, the primary villain in the Hindu legend Ramayana. In the legend Ravana attempted to move Mount Kailash, the home of the Hindu deity Shiva, from the Himalayas to Sri Lanka, in order to please his mother. In the process he angers Shiva and is briefly tortured by the deity. Ravana then prays for mercy and is released. In order to thank Shiva for sparing his life Ravana decided to sing for the god. To accompany his song of praise, Ravana magically creates a musical instrument, the Ravanahatha, out of one of his arms and some of his hair. Shiva is so impressed by the performance that he grants Ravana immortality. Ravanahatha are still played today and are popular with the Bhopa priest singers of Rajasthan.

Other examples of Ravanahatha can be found in the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, the Nadsadhna Institute for Indian Music and Meditation, and others. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Drum incense burner

E/2000/13/1
Drum incense burner
Lacandone
Mexico: Chiapas
ca. 1970
Materials: ceramic, leather, plant fibers, wood

The Lacandone (or Lacandon) people of the Chiapas region of Mexico are one of the remaining tribes of Maya Indians, and are considered by some, to be the most traditional Mayan group remaining. This group of Maya live exclusively in the Laconadon rain forest of southern Mexico. In 1978 the Mexican government declared approximately 600,000 hectares of Lacandon forest a “protected zone,” and gave the land to the Lacandone people. Roughly half of this protected area is known as Montes Azules (Blue Woodlands) and is one of the largest remaining tropical rainforests in Central America. Traditionally the Lacandone engaged in a sustainable slash-and-burn form of agriculture that would utilize small areas of the forest for subsistence crops and then allow the field to remain fallow for a number of years before being returned to use. The Lacandone would supplement their diet with hunting, fishing, and gathering.

Incense plays a large part in traditional Lacandone religion, and this drum shaped incense burner was likely meant to be used as part of a Lacandone ceremony. The Lacandone worship a number of deities, many of which have their roots in ancient Maya tradition. Religious ceremonies can take place at a number of sacred sites, including natural caves, Mayan ruins, and in small house-like structures within the villages called “god houses.” These ceremonies traditionally included offerings of food and/or drink to the deities and the burning of copal incense. The incense, made of tree resins, is burned in special pottery vessels called “god pots.” These incense burners are shaped like a simple round bowl with a large human-like face modeled on the rim. While the faces of these pots are all very similar, the pots are often painted with specific colors and patterns to indicate that the pot is a representation of a specific deity.

Other examples of Lacandone pottery can be found at Williams College Museum of Art, the National Museum of the American Indian, the Milwaukee Public Museum, and others.

The following video shows a Lacandone drum similar the one at the Sam Noble Museum being used. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Mouth organ

E/1955/17/1
Mouth Organ (sheng or sho)
Japanese
Japan
Unknown date: prior to 1955
Materials: bamboo, lacquer, cloth, and brass

This object is a mouth organ, or sho from Japan. This type of musical instrument was developed in Japan based on a similar type of instrument, the Chinese sheng. Sho are used in Gagaku, the traditional orchestral music of the Japanese court. This type of instrument is played by blowing air into the mouthpiece or drawing air through the instrument, which circulates the air into the bamboo tubes where it vibrates tiny metal reeds. Because the instrument produces sound on both the inhale and exhale, long periods of uninterrupted sound are possible. The tubes are arranged to represent the folded wings of a phoenix, a symbol of the imperial house. It is also thought that the sho imitates the call of the phoenix.

The present day Japanese sho is thinner than the Chinese sheng, and plays at a higher octave. Traditionally sho were constructed from very old and blackened bamboo that was part of a thatched roof, directly above the kitchen in a traditional Japanese house. Today the pieces of bamboo use in the construction of a sho are still heated over a fire to eliminate moisture that could effect the sound.

The following video demonstrates how a Japanese sho is played.

[Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Drum & drum tool

E/1930/1/65
Peyote water drum and antler drum tool
Unknown tribe
North America: Plains
Early 20th century
Materials: cast iron, hide, horn, stone, and cord

This object is a kettle drum in the style of the Native American (Peyote) Church. Depending on the tribal affiliation(s) of the drum owner, drums like this one in the Ethnology Collection are typically made from a one gallon (#6) cast iron kettle with three small peg legs on the bottom, sometimes referred to as a dutch oven. The kettle is filled with a small quantity of water and is then covered with a piece of hide, held on by a long piece of rope or cord that is intricately wrapped around seven round stones (or walnuts). A small antler or wooden tool is used to help tie the drum securely. Below you can see a short video that illustrates how drums like this are tied.

Drums play an important role in the songs that are a staple of Native American Church ceremonies. During these ceremonies, which can last all night, each member sings while accompanied by a drum and rattle. The singing begins with the Roadman, or spiritual leader of the group, who sings four songs. After the Roadman, the other members of the group each sing. This rotation is usually completed four times during the night. A sample of a Native American Church song, featuring a similar drum can be found here. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Flute

E/1956/25/1
Quena, flute
Peru: Inca, Quechua
Materials: Copper

Traditionally constructed from bone, ceramic or cane, this flute known as the quena is considered a fundamental aspect of South American music. Research suggests that it was developed during the reign of the Inca Empire, which spanned over a vast portion of the continent, and was centralized in the Andes Mountains of Peru. There is evidence, however, that notched flutes similar to the quena were being used by the Moche culture along the Peruvian coast, dating back to 100 CE.

In the mid 15th century, a power began to rise in the mountains of Peru, eventually becoming the Inca Empire, ranging from Columbia in the north all the way to Chile in the South. The Incas were very successful at maintaining control over the various indigenous peoples within their empire, and had an extremely effective method of food production and storage. They also were skilled architects, erecting temples, cities and complex road systems with precision. The Inca people, along with their technological and agricultural advancements, were highly ritualistic. Dancing and music at festivals is likely how the quena flute became integrated into the Inca culture, and later dispersed to other regions in the Americas.

This particular instrument is a contemporary version of the traditional quena, and like many others, is made of copper. A distinct feature of quena flutes is a notch in the mouthpiece, typically in a U, V or square shape. The different shapes of the notch result in slightly different acoustics, but all quenas produce a light, lyrical, bird-like sound. While the quena is historically significant, it continues to be in use today throughout South America, in both traditional festivals in the Andean region and also incorporated into contemporary, popular music. [Kristina Sokolowsky]

Object: Drum

E/1972/4/4
Drum, kundu
Papua New Guinea: Sepik River region
Materials: wood, lizard skin

The Sepik River region of Papua New Guinea is the home of many indigenous peoples who use their surrounding environment and resources for transportation, food and creating art. Carving wood is an integral part of these cultures due to the vast amounts of tropical trees and vegetation along the river, and is the basis for constructing things such as canoes, shields, ritualistic items and drums. This item is a drum known in New Guinea Pidgin as kundu, and is characterized by its hollowed interior and unique striking surface.

The hourglass shape of this kundu is the most common, but conical or cylindrical drums are also used. The carved handle on the side is another frequently seen feature as it makes the drum easier to play when standing, but is not a distinct attribute of this type of instrument. The low, resonating tone that the kundu produces when played is created from the lizard skin stretched over one of the open ends. Two methods are employed to adjust the pitch and tone of the drum beat. If the sound is lower than desired, the lizard or snake skin is held in front of a fire which causes it to tighten and raise the pitch. In order to lower the pitch, small globs of beeswax or other sticky sap-like substances found in the surrounding tropical forests are applied to the drumhead. The added weight lowers the resonant frequency, and thus lowers the pitch it produces. This creative approach to tuning allows the drum to be the exact pitch that the drummer desires.

Kundu drums are traditionally used during rituals, such as manhood initiation ceremonies or funerals, where it is played either alone or accompanied by other instruments like pan-flutes, rattles and other percussion equipment. Kundus are, like many things in Papua New Guinea cultures, associated with the supernatural world, and the sounds produced by the drums are representative of ancestral and spiritual voices. Today, these instruments are often created for and sold to tourists, with many of the historic drums now in museums and art collections around the world. [Kristina Sokolowsky]

Object: Dagger

E/2004/6/41
Asmat: Cassowary bone dagger
Indonesia, Irian Jaya
Date Unknown
Materials: Bone, grasses, feathers

This dagger was made from the long bone of a cassowary. The handle of the dagger has been covered with woven grass and cassowary feathers hang from either side.

This particular style of bone dagger is associated with the Asmat. The Asmat people live in the western half of New Guinea formerly known as Irian Jaya. Their tribal lands are on the west coast of the mainland and share some overlap with the Lorentz National Park.

A cassowary is a bird found in the rainforests of Australia and New Guinea. It is a large, flightless bird and is just slightly smaller than an emu. Cassowaries are revered by many groups in Indonesia because they can be extremely aggressive animals. In many cases, cassowaries are seen as supernatural creatures. The oral tradition of the Asmat contains origin stories in which the cassowary is portrayed as the mother of all human beings. Perhaps because of this myth, the cassowary is always thought to be female. Despite this, the cassowary is a symbol of masculinity and male strength among the Asmat and is associated with warfare and rites to manhood.

According to the Asmat, no death is accidental. Deaths occur either due to murder or sorcery. For this reason, each death must be avenged. The Asmat believe that the souls of their dead dwell inside of the trees. In order to pay homage to their dead, the Asmat carve ancestor bis poles (also known as bisj or beech poles). These poles also serve as a reminder that the death must be avenged.

When a member of the Asmat dies, the bis pole carving begins. This also sets off a series of feasts and celebrations. This ongoing process eventually culminates in a headhunting raid of the neighboring enemy group believed to be the source of the death. While headhunting occurs only occasionally among the Asmat today, mock battles are still held. Taking the head of an enemy was essential to restoring the cosmic balance. So it is through this cycle of warfare that the Asmat continually restore order.

[Kelsey Barrow]

Object: Loom

E/1997/3/7
Cakchiquel, Maya: Backstrap Loom
Guatemala
Date unknown
Materials: Wood, yam, cotton fibers

The Mayan tradition of weaving is one that reaches beyond textile production. Through the use of tools such as this backstrap loom, weaving can become a mechanism to strengthen and empower the female identity. From an early age, a Maya girl is taught the importance of her role as a weaver. This is instilled as soon as she enters the world, when female elders give her a toy loom. Within the first ten years of her life, this gift will be used as an educational tool as she becomes familiar with the look and feel of the loom. Once her spirit is ready, female family members will teach her how to weave.

In the Mayan worldview, weaving and female fertility are inextricably linked. The very act of weaving is referred to as “giving birth.” Various components of the loom and implements associated with weaving are given names related to female deities associated with life-giving powers, and human body parts such as the female heart, womb and umbilical cord. If the loom is used properly, the rhythmic sounds of the batten and shuttle will sound like a prenatal heartbeat, and the swaying body of a weaving woman should imitate the movements of a woman in labor.

Equipped with the skill and knowledge of textile production, women are often self-motivated to use weaving as a social movement, achieving solidarity among fellow female community members. Many women accomplish this by participating in a weaving cooperative. Membership in such an organization serves to galvanize the female gender identity, and provide a somewhat marginalized group with the means to boost morale and build economic stability and independence. By entering the marketplace, Mayan women have an opportunity to personally share their craft of weaving with people outside their culture group, using the loom as a communicative device regarding their heritage and traditional customs.

Through a shared identity found in cooperative efforts of conservation and education, there is a raised awareness of the rich cultural tradition of weaving. As a result, weaving’s deep connection with the feminine identity is shared with, and kept alive for, future generations of both the Mayan weavers and the public audience.

[Anna Rice]

Object: Knife

E/1975/1/20
Nepal: Kukri Knife
Asia
Materials: Steel, Brass, Leather, Wood

The Gurkha of Nepal is a formidable group of soldiers identified by their crescent shaped knives called Kukri knives.  Typically fighting alongside British soldiers, most recently in Iraq, these soldiers are the archetypal warrior.  During World War II it is rumored that they could sneak behind German lines to their fox holes where the Germans slept two by two and slit the throat of one of the two German soldiers.  The surviving soldier would then wake to find his partner.  This psychological warfare built up the reputation of the Gurkha mystique.

The knives are a large reason why Ghurkha’s are seen as such invincible warriors. Large curved blades approximately 12 inches long, these knives are used for slashing rather than stabbing.  The notch at the bottom of each blade is said to divert blood away from the handle.  Each blade is hand crafted, even modern military issue blades.  Many Ghurka soldiers forge their own knives, a tradition passed down from their fathers.  The Kukri is usually accompanied by two smaller knives called a karda and a chakmak, which fit into the sheath of the Kukri.  The karda is used for small jobs and is placed next to one’s cot to ward off evil spirits.  The chakmak has a blunt edge which can be rubbed against a rock to create sparks to start a fire.

[Stephanie Adams]

Object: Drum

E/1946/5/1
Africa: Drum
20th Century
Materials: wood, antelope skin

This object is an African drum similar to those found in the areas surrounding Lake Victoria. This drum has a body of wood, traditionally treated to prevent wood-boring insects, with a head on each end made of antelope hide. Strips of antelope hide are also used to lace the drum heads together. These drums can be played with the hands or with a stick or mallet, and can vary greatly in size.

Drums are an important part of the spiritual and everyday life of many African tribes. Healing rituals use drums to induce a trance and entice spirits to enter into the bodies of those dancing to the music. Inside the drum shown above is a charm, which is known only to the creator of the drum, potentially signifying this drum’s sacred role. As a communication tool, drums can be made to imitate the rhythmic and tonal pattern of speech. This “talking drum” is more prevalent on the western coast of Africa, and can be used to communicate long distances. Drums also play a large role in festivals and rituals–like the birth of twins or the installation of a king.

[Daniel Gonzalez]