Object: Tomb figure

E/1960/3/1
Horse tomb figure
Chinese
Henan Province, China
T’ang Dynasty (618-906 CE)
Materials: ceramic, slip

The ancient Chinese believed the human soul had two parts. When a person died they believed that these two parts separated, with one entering into the spirit world (also known as the hun), and the other (called the po) staying here on earth inside his or her tomb. In the T’ang Dynasty the upper-classes were buried with hundreds of clay objects called mingqi. Mingqi were representations of all the things that were important to individual and could include figures of people and animals, pots and bowls, and other everyday objects. These figures would ensure that the part of the soul that remained inside the tomb would have an enjoyable afterlife. Many aspects of the tomb were regulated by the government. The size of the tomb and the number of mingqi allowed depended on the rank and status of the deceased. Higher ranking officials were able to stock their tombs with large collections of tomb figures. Popular figures included representations of servants, entertainers, horses and camels. In particular, the horse was a symbol of the aristocracy and horse tomb figures, like the one in the Sam Noble Museum collection, were placed in nearly all high-ranking tombs. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Mummified fish

C/1957/4/1-3
Mummified fish
Ancient Egyptian
Egypt
unknown date
Materials: Fish, cloth, resin, salt or natron

Ancient Egyptian culture is best known today for its mummies but, humans weren’t the only ones being mummified in Ancient Egypt. Animals were also commonly mummified. Animals were mummified for a variety of reasons, all connected to the Egyptian belief in an afterlife. The Ancient Egyptians viewed death as the beginning of a new life in the underworld, and much like an extended vacation, in order to enjoy this new life one would need to pack accordingly. Only those items properly persevered and stored within the tomb would be available to the deceased in the afterlife, this would include one’s own body and internal organs. Some animals were mummified because they were pets, and their owners wanted them to enjoy the afterlife with them. Any item or animal that one wanted to have in the afterlife had to be included in the tomb, so some animals were mummified to become food for deceased humans in the afterlife. Other animals were mummified because they were considered sacred to a particular deity. These animals were often associated with specific religious cults throughout Egypt, like the Apis Bulls at Memphis and the crocodiles at the Kom Ombo Temple.

The mummification of fish went on throughout much of Ancient Egyptian history but is thought to have reached its peak in the Ptolemaic period. The fish were mummified by removing their internal organs through a slit in the belly of the fish and then either soaked in brine or packed with salt or natron to dry out and preserve the fish. The fish would then be either packed in mud or covered in papyrus stalks and then wrapped in linen and covered in resin. This group of fish were unwrapped after they were discovered and only part of their original wrappings can be seen, on fish C/1957/4/1.

The following video shows a modern attempt at recreating fish mummification.

[Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Fragmentary figurine

C/1987/7/1
Fragmentary Phi figurine
Mycenaean
Mycenae: Greece
ca. 1400–1300 BCE
Materials: Ceramic

This object is a fragmentary female terracotta figurine from Mycenaean Greece. This type of figurine was particularly common in the late fourteenth and early thirteenth centuries BCE. They typically come in three variations the “tau,” “psi” and  “phi” figurines, each named for the Greek letters they resemble. Each type shows simple female figures, perhaps meant to be goddesses, wearing long dresses, with necklaces, long hair and sometimes wearing a headdress. They have been found in large numbers throughout mainland Greece in sanctuaries and tombs, which suggests they served as votive offerings or ritual items.

Similar, intact, figurines can be found in the Louvre, the British Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Wilcox Classical Museum at the University of Kansas, the Archaeological Museum at Delphi, and many others.

The Mycenaean civilization thrived on mainland Greece from ca. 1600 to 1200 BCE. It was a period of prosperity during which the fortified cities of Mycenae, Tiryns, Thebes, and Athens were built and according to legend, was also when the Trojan War took place. However, by the late thirteenth century BCE a vast majority of the Mycenaean cities had been destroyed by unknown forces and Greece entered a period called the “Greek Dark Age.”

The following video discusses the city of Mycenae, where this figure was found, and the Mycenaean civilization. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Drum incense burner

E/2000/13/1
Drum incense burner
Lacandone
Mexico: Chiapas
ca. 1970
Materials: ceramic, leather, plant fibers, wood

The Lacandone (or Lacandon) people of the Chiapas region of Mexico are one of the remaining tribes of Maya Indians, and are considered by some, to be the most traditional Mayan group remaining. This group of Maya live exclusively in the Laconadon rain forest of southern Mexico. In 1978 the Mexican government declared approximately 600,000 hectares of Lacandon forest a “protected zone,” and gave the land to the Lacandone people. Roughly half of this protected area is known as Montes Azules (Blue Woodlands) and is one of the largest remaining tropical rainforests in Central America. Traditionally the Lacandone engaged in a sustainable slash-and-burn form of agriculture that would utilize small areas of the forest for subsistence crops and then allow the field to remain fallow for a number of years before being returned to use. The Lacandone would supplement their diet with hunting, fishing, and gathering.

Incense plays a large part in traditional Lacandone religion, and this drum shaped incense burner was likely meant to be used as part of a Lacandone ceremony. The Lacandone worship a number of deities, many of which have their roots in ancient Maya tradition. Religious ceremonies can take place at a number of sacred sites, including natural caves, Mayan ruins, and in small house-like structures within the villages called “god houses.” These ceremonies traditionally included offerings of food and/or drink to the deities and the burning of copal incense. The incense, made of tree resins, is burned in special pottery vessels called “god pots.” These incense burners are shaped like a simple round bowl with a large human-like face modeled on the rim. While the faces of these pots are all very similar, the pots are often painted with specific colors and patterns to indicate that the pot is a representation of a specific deity.

Other examples of Lacandone pottery can be found at Williams College Museum of Art, the National Museum of the American Indian, the Milwaukee Public Museum, and others.

The following video shows a Lacandone drum similar the one at the Sam Noble Museum being used. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Mouth organ

E/1955/17/1
Mouth Organ (sheng or sho)
Japanese
Japan
Unknown date: prior to 1955
Materials: bamboo, lacquer, cloth, and brass

This object is a mouth organ, or sho from Japan. This type of musical instrument was developed in Japan based on a similar type of instrument, the Chinese sheng. Sho are used in Gagaku, the traditional orchestral music of the Japanese court. This type of instrument is played by blowing air into the mouthpiece or drawing air through the instrument, which circulates the air into the bamboo tubes where it vibrates tiny metal reeds. Because the instrument produces sound on both the inhale and exhale, long periods of uninterrupted sound are possible. The tubes are arranged to represent the folded wings of a phoenix, a symbol of the imperial house. It is also thought that the sho imitates the call of the phoenix.

The present day Japanese sho is thinner than the Chinese sheng, and plays at a higher octave. Traditionally sho were constructed from very old and blackened bamboo that was part of a thatched roof, directly above the kitchen in a traditional Japanese house. Today the pieces of bamboo use in the construction of a sho are still heated over a fire to eliminate moisture that could effect the sound.

The following video demonstrates how a Japanese sho is played.

[Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Lekythos

C/2001/1/20
White ground lekythos
Tymbos Painter
Attic
Athens, Greece
ca. 450 BCE
Materials: ceramic, slip

A lekythos is a container for oil and perfume, with a single vertical handle. They commonly have an angular shoulder, a tall cylindrical body which rounds slightly at the bottom, and a foot. This lekythos is decorated in the white ground style, in which the figural decoration is painted in an outline style on a field of white slip. While red and black figure lekythoi were used for many common domestic purposes, white ground lekythoi are usually associated with funerary rituals and offerings. They have been found in many archaeological excavations of cemeteries and are often depicted in vase painting siting on or near graves.

This video shows some of the many funerary scenes depicted on white ground lekythoi.

This lekythos, at the Sam Noble Museum, has been attributed to the so-called Tymbos Painter. When identifying the maker or artist behind a piece of ancient pottery archaeologists occasionally encounter signed pieces. More often, pieces of pottery are grouped together based on the style of the decoration or repeating themes in the designs. Like many other Greek vase “painters,” the Tymbos Painter was named by archaeologist based on what designs he seemed to paint the most often, tombs (tymbos in Greek). These “painters” could be actual individuals or a workshop of artisans trained and working together to produce very similar pieces. This painter was originally identified by German archaeologist Ernst Buschor, and was also described by famed British archaeologist Sir John Beazley. While the Tymbos Painter was not known for elaborate designs or careful craftsmanship he was definitely prolific. There are many examples of Tymbos Painter lekythoi found in museums around the world today. For instance, a number of other examples can be found in the British Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Ashmolean Museum, the Louvre and many others. [Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Funerary plaque

C/1984/4/7
Funerary plaque
Southern Arabian Peninsula
1st century BCE
Material: Alabaster

In ancient times the area of southern Arabia, in the modern countries of Yemen, Saudi Arabia and Oman, was home to a number of kingdoms that prospered through caravan trade routes with the cultures of the Mediterranean. Some of these kingdoms include: Saba (referred to as Sheba in the Bible), Hadramawt, Himyar, Qataban and Ma’in. There was often warfare between them over control of frankincense and myrrh: highly prized aromatics burnt on altars all over the ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean world. The most important deity of these kingdoms was the Moon-god. This god was known by many names but was always shown in art as a bull. The Qatabanians called this deity Amm, and thought of him as their patron deity. Bull head plaques like this one were especially popular on funerary stele at Heid ibn Aqil, the cemetery at Tamna. A similar plaque can be found in the British Museum.

The stone used to carve this plaque and many other pre-Islamic Southern Arabian sculptures is alabaster. This type of stone is sedimentary, which means it was formed when sediments were compressed together over time by water and/or other layers of sediment and cemented together by the combination of minerals and chemicals. Sedimentary rock tends to be softer and easier to carve than igneous or metamorphic types of rock. Alabaster was a popular stone for carving in ancient times and examples of it can be found in ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian arts as well as those of Southern Arabia. These ancient artists would shape the stone using stone or metal drills, chisels, saws, and hammers. While the materials used to make these tools have changed over the centuries many of the tool forms used for sculpting stone remain the same today. Below you will find a video showing modern versions of these types of tools and how they are used.

[Kathryn S. (Barr) McCloud]

Object: Tsantsa

E/1949/10/1
Tsantsa (fake)
Shuar
South America: Ecuador or Peru
Unknown (likely early 20th century)
Materials: Leather, hair, fur

The South American Shuar people, called Jivaro (meaning savage) by Euro-American traders, practiced ritual head shrinking for many years. Today tsantsa, or shrunken heads are displayed in museums as treasured artifacts of warfare; however, to the Shuar the head-shrinking ritual served a more important purpose. To the Shuar, the tsantsa is used to trap the muisak or avenging soul of slain persons. Tribal conflicts between the Ecuadorian Shuar and their Achuar neighbors often lead to deaths. In order to keep the muisak of a slain person from harming the warrior who killed him, the Shuar practiced a ritual head shrinking. The head of the slain person would be collected and taken back to the Shuar camp, where the skin would then be removed from the skull. The resulting skin pouch would be filled with hot sand or rock to dry and shrink the pouch. The eyes and mouth would then be sewed shut, the mouth with 3 loops indicating the 3-night ritual process of feasts and dancing. Charcoal from balsa wood would then be rubbed on the skin to create a blackened, oily appearance. The Shuar believed that this process would contain the avenging spirit inside the head, preventing it from harming the warrior responsible for his death. After the rituals were complete, the Shuar had varying uses for the tsantsa. Some warriors kept their heads, usually in a private location, only displaying the tsantsa in special circumstances. Other Shuar disposed of their tsantsa in the forest as the ritual purpose of the tsantsa was fulfilled, and the Shuar did not attribute any monetary value to them.

In the late 19^th century, Victorian expeditions searching for gold discovered the tsantsa. Intrigued by the gruesome artifacts, traders exchanged guns and steel blades for the heads, many of which found their way into museums like the Sam Noble. While the Shuar were not actively producing tsantsa due to legislation and Catholic missionary influence, the market for the heads encouraged the tribesman to create tsantsa “fakes.”  These counterfeits include heads that are from non-human specimens such as monkeys  or heads made by non-tribal people, many coming from unclaimed bodies in the morgue. We believe the tsantsa in the Ethnology Collection of the Sam Noble Museum to be a shrunken head not of a human, but of some sort of primate.

These fakes are still on the market today and can be easily spotted if one knows what to look for. For one, the lips of true tsantsa would have been sewn with heavy cotton strings, making three loops. Many fakes were sewn with thin string that indicates their lack of authenticity. Also, the real tsantsa have very fine nasal hair; Skin that was taken from a goat to be formed into a fake tsantsa would not have such hair. There would also be a stitch at the top of the head for a thread-loop for the slayer to hold or hang the head by, which most fakes lack. Also, fakes would lack the smooth oily skin achieved by rubbing it with charcoal.

While the ethical debate surrounding the display of human remains in museums continues, there are still many museums that display their collection of tsantsa heads. These museums include (The SNMONH cannot vouch for the authenticity of these heads) the Lightner Museum, St. Augustine, Florida; Museum Of America Madrid, Spain; Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford, England; and the Memphis Pink Palace Museum, Memphis, Tennessee. It is important for visitors to remember that these heads should not be taken out of historical context and in no way offer complete representation of the Shuar culture. Many museums recognize the sensitive nature of these artifacts and have removed their tsantsa from exhibition. Have you seen tsantsa heads in any other museums? We would love to know what you thought of them.  Should tsantsa heads remain on display? Comment below!

For more information see:
Rubenstein, Steven Lee
2007  Circulation, Accumulation, and the Power of Shuar Shrunken Heads.. Cultural Anthropology 22(3): 357-399
Rubenstein, Steven Lee
2004   Shuar Migrants and Shrunken Heads, Face to Face in a New York Museum.  Anthropology Today 20(3): 15–19.
Shah, Tahir
2001  A Price On Their Heads. Geographical.
[Chelsea Pierce]